Working title: The Chinese Bible in Christian Formation. Draft 9/27/24
Abstract:
The Chinese Bible translation known as the Union Version is held in common by Chinese Protestant Christians around the world (the Roman Catholics use a different translation). The particularities of the Union Version determine how Chinese Protestants understand Christianity. This article enables you through your knowledge about the Chinese Bible to engage in gospel conversations and Christian growth conversations with sensitivity to your listener, whether that person’s primary background influence is Confucian, Daoist, Buddhist, traditional religion, or atheist.
Special Characteristics of Chinese Bible Vocabulary
Using a Chinese Bible avoids two common time-consuming problems encountered when teaching from an English Bible: pronunciation questions and specialized terminology explanations.
Newcomers to an English Bible are constantly asking how to pronounce difficult proper names, like Nebuchadnezzar or Zephaniah. This problem does not occur in the Chinese language, because each syllable in a proper name from a foreign language is represented by a familiar Chinese character with a known pronunciation. For example, Melchizedek is represented by the Chinese syllables mai-ji-xi-de 麦基洗德. [Endnote 1]. These words mean wheat, foundation, washing, and ethics. These characters have meanings of their own, but because the word-combination does not make sense, the reader realizes that a foreign name is being represented, and so speaks the correct sound without reference to the meanings. The reader thus breezes through the name without having to ask how to pronounce it, and the Bible reading is not slowed down. The advantage of the English spelling though is that the origin of the word can often be ascertained if one knows the original languages, for example that melchi is a transcription of the Hebrew word for king, and zedek for the word righteousness. This is not apparent in the Chinese.
Interestingly, the proper names that start with the English letter J are pronounced in Chinese closer to the original languages. For example, Joshua which starts in Hebrew with a yod, is pronounced in Chinese starting with a y sound: yue-shu-ya 约书亚. The word Jesus in the New Testament starts with a Greek iota, and in Chinese is pronounced ye-su 耶稣.
Much time in an English-language Bible class is spent explaining biblical terms that are not used in everyday language, like justification or apostle. This is not a problem in reading a Chinese Bible, because the biblical terms are translated rather than transliterated from the original languages, as they are in the English translations. For example, the English word justified is not a translation. It is just the Latin term iustificare copied into English letters. The Chinese however translate it correctly by these two Chinese words: declare and righteous. (That word for righteous is not a technical term in Chinese that would have to be explained, but is in common use to describe a good person.) The phrase “justified by faith” in Romans 5:1 is represented by the words that mean “because of, faith, called, and righteous.” 因信称义.
The second and fourth words are pulled from that phrase to provide the name for the Lutheran church (thus, it is called the “faith-righteousness” church, 信义会.) There is another common way to translate the term Lutheran, which uses the foreign word method described above. It uses the sounds for Luther’s name, resulting in the term “Lu De” church: 路德会.
Here are some other examples. Sanctification was copied into English from Latin. The Chinese Bible translates it with the words “become” and “holy” 成圣. As for words that English transliterated from Greek, the Greek words Apostle and for Angel, which the English versions simply copy into English letters without translating, are both translated into Chinese using the word for messenger or envoy: shi 使. (Apostle is shi tu, 使徒, an ambassador, and Angel is tian shi, 天使, the word for sky or heaven plus messenger.) The Greek word copied into English letters to create the word Baptism is correctly translated into Chinese as washing-ceremony 洗礼 .
Most English versions perpetuate the Jewish custom, continued in the Septuagint, of replacing the name of God given at the burning bush, commonly written in English letters as YHWH, with the word for Lord. We thus have to explain to English speakers that the word LORD all in caps in the Old Testament indicates that the original word there was YHWH. The Chinese version however does not replace YHWH with the word Lord, but uses Chinese syllables to approximate the sound of the Hebrew word. The syllables used are ye-he-hua 耶和华. However there is no connection apparent there to the root word “to be.” That would still have to be explained using Exodus 3:14-15.
Just as in most other translations around the world, there are certain terms that are not translated, but simply represented by characters that sound like them: Amen, Hallelujah, Immanuel, Messiah, and Christ. These then would need to be explained. To help you explain the last two, you can use the Chinese Bible in John 1:41 which affirms that they have the same meaning, and use Psalm 2:2 which helpfully translates Messiah as “Anointed One” 受膏者.
These insights are useful to you even if you are using English to talk with Chinese people, because if they are already familiar with the Chinese version, then when they see the English word, they will mentally translate it into the Chinese meaning, along with the nuances that are attached to the Chinese term. If their first exposure to Christianity is through the English Bible, then you will have to explain the technical terms just as you would to an English native speaker. [endnote 2]
Chinese Versions
The most widely used Chinese Bible translation is the one created in 1919 in China by a committee of westerners and native Chinese speakers. It is called the Union Version (Chinese 和合本). It has a place of honor among Chinese
protestant believers similar to the place of the King James Version in anglophone countries. People have told me that it has an archaic feel and some infrequently-seen characters, just like some say about the KJV. The LCMS had a part in distributing millions of copies of this Bible throughout China, because LCMS former Lutheran Hour Speaker Oswald Hoffmann, in his role as president of the United Bible Society, helped provide funding for a printing press at a Development Agency established in Nanjing China in 1985 called The Amity Foundation.
There are many newer translations, but they have not come into common use. The website biblegateway.com includes the following additional translations: Chinese Contemporary Bible, Chinese New Version, Chinese Standard Bible. I own a Today’s Chinese Version and a New Life Version. The examples in this article all use the Union translation, but the comments in this article will be hold true for the other versions as well. The Roman Catholic Church has its own translation. Media articles claim that the Communist party is producing another translation which is described as having “Chinese socialist characteristics,” but I have not seen this Bible and the only example I have seen given is about changes to the story about the woman caught in adultery.
In any Chinese Bible, there are two possible ways the word for “God” might be translated. Both of these ways were in use by protestant missionaries starting from the nineteenth century, and in fact there was a conflict among missionaries as to which of the two should be used. One of the words is shen 神, which is the generic name for any god, corresponding to the Hebrew El. The other term was used by the ancient Shang dynasty as their name for the power in the sky. The name means “emperor above.” The Chinese term is Shang Di 上帝. This term was used even before Confucius interchangeably and with the same meaning as “heaven” tian 天 to designate the Supreme Power ruling over the affairs of men. [endnote 2.5]
Even though nowadays there is no longer a conflict, and the two terms are used interchangeably, the Union Version is still available in two editions, each one using a different name for God..
Since the Roman Catholic church began mission work in China two hundred years before the protestants, they chose another term, which means “sky or heaven plus the word Lord,” 天主.
Preparing for Gospel conversations
As you think of having gospel conversations with Chinese people, it is true that there are differences in thinking between the west and the east, but also consider the similarities that you as a Christian have a lot in common with someone raised in a culture influenced by Confucianism. You both treasure ancient books, and use quotations from ancient books to make authoritative statements. You both look back to a golden age from which people have fallen. You both believe in the ideals of good family and social relations, and of being useful to society. In both east and west there have been people who tried to look beyond the visible to form a concept of reality. The views are different, but the urge is the same. We can enter a conversation with the hope that we will be able to understand each other, also because we have many things in common simply by virtue of being human.
Christians believe that God has broken into human thought processes with a revelation through words and by taking on human flesh in the person of Jesus. Christians believe we are custodians of that revelation and tasked with passing it on. The Christian message however includes concepts that are foreign to all cultures. This article will take four elements of the gospel message and examine how the Chinese Bible assists us to converse about them with adherents of five different schools of thought that can be found among Chinese people today: Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, traditional polytheism, and atheism. These eastern religious concepts are brought up not for the purpose of religious dialog, and not so you think about how you can refute them, but so that you will be able to find bridges to talk about Christ, and successfully avoid cutoffs and misunderstandings.
The four content areas of the salvation message used in this article are those found in Romans 3:23-25: “for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, and are justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God put forward as a propitiation by his blood, to be received by faith” (ESV). These content areas are also found in all five of the evangelistic conversations recorded in the book of Acts. [footnote 3]. In these conversations there are four topics that the apostles never left out: our human problem, the nature and work of Christ, the response kindled by the Spirit, and the benefits of Christ’s work. [Endnote 4].
Each of these four areas has important considerations one must take into account when talking with Chinese people, and how they are explained will differ depending on the background of the listener.
Word Usage in Evanggelistic Conversations
Recognition of sin
Humanity’s problem, revealed in scripture, is that we are separated from God due to sin. How can the Chinese Bible help us explain the need for a savior? If the person you are talking to is shaped by Confucian thought (儒家), the person may counter that the ancient sages taught that humans are basically good (only one of them, Xunzi, argued that people are intrinsically evil). However, the person probably can admit that the sages emphasized a sense of responsibility, and that those who do not play their proper role in the hierarchy of society are in the wrong. Most people I talk with will agree that people are not perfect. 不完美。The ideals in Confucianism are good ideals, but people are aware that they do not always keep the rules, or they may be resentful about the rules. You can bring the good news that Jesus can help someone to actually practice the high ideals of Confucian ethics.
The concept you need to explain is that the wrongs that we do are not only against other humans, but against God. You can illustrate this by referring to the near-universal Chinese reverence for parents: since I was generated by my parents, I ought to obey them, and if I do not obey them I am in the wrong, and ought to make it up to them in some way. [endnote 4.1] Samuel Shen points out that Chinese recognize that there is a creator, and “like to compare the relationship between God and human beings to that between parents and sons.” [footnote 4.2] and that people must prove themselves worthy of acceptance by this power. The Bible adds that it is not enough to “try,” but that wrong behavior makes one guilty before God, and therefore it is only God that can forgive one’s wrongs, and therefore that God must be addressed in repentance not just a promise of good intentions. Here Psalm 51:4 is clear; “Against you, you only, have I sinned and done what is evil in your sight, so that you may be justified in your words and blameless in your judgment.” ESV.
That verse however uses a vocabulary term that is often noted by Chinese evangelists: the word used to translate “sin” is the word commonly used to designate someone who deserves to go to jail. The Chinese word is zui 罪. So unless you explain further, when you say that someone is a sinner, what they hear you saying is that you think they are a criminal. So it is necessary to explain that the Bible usage of this term is much broader than the social usage. Here 1 John 3:4 is useful: “sin is the transgression of the law.” (KJV).
In gospel conversations, I prefer to avoid using the word zui, but rather I use other words that portray our rebellion against God, like wrongdoing 过错, disobedience 违背, and rebellion 悖逆. Do not be dismayed if someone does not accept his sinfulness right away. Our role is to proclaim the revelation that people’s wrongdoing is against God. It is the role of the Holy Spirit to bring the person to accept that revelation (John 16:8).
If the person is under the sway of philosophical Daoism, he would believe that the ideal is to go along with the flow of nature, and that going against nature is the problem. The challenge is to show that what we do naturally is not always right. A good bridge is to start with the concept that man is created in the image of God, so would naturally have done good, but man then rebelled against God, so that man’s natural instincts are not always in accord with God and the nature that God created. Judges 21:25 states that the problem of the people of that day was “everyone did what was right in his own eyes.” Genesis 8:21 says “the imagination of man’s heart is evil from his youth.”
If the person is a follower of Chinese Buddhism, then the issue is karma. The person already accepts that his wrongdoings will influence his future. It is important to emphasize that no amount of good works can undo the bad we have done. It can be a relief to hear that Jesus has already taken upon himself the punishment that we deserve.
If the person follows the Chinese traditional religion of ceremonial acts to Chinese gods, there would not be familiarity with the idea that religion has a moral aspect. The acts are requests for good fortune, unrelated to the good or bad behavior of the worshipper. Here the emphasis can be on things like guilt and shame, and how they are symptoms of a rift with God.
It is common to hear that western culture emphasizes guilt, while eastern cultures emphasize shame. There is no question that Christianity supplies a solution for each: guilt is forgiven, and shame is healed by acceptance. But on the matter of moving someone toward the recognition that atonement is needed, I find it more natural to use guilt as a transition. Chinese people can feel guilt (感到内疚), but we then need to add that the reason for that feeling is that we have disobeyed God and are due punishment by God. That is why we need a savior.
Religious Daoism. Over the years, many elements of Chinese thought have been included and systematized under this title, including martial arts, yin and yang, feng shui, and a hierarchy of gods, including the founding authors of Daoism itself. There is a yearning for meaning, but not a sense of disobedience toward God. One approach is to explain that the reason the yearning cannot be satisfied is because mankind has become separated from God due to sin. Isaiah 59:2 says this clearly in Chinese: your evil actions have made a separation 隔绝 from God.
Many Chinese people today are atheists and have been taught about Darwinism and the lack of any moral standard. Like western atheists, some of them come to see their human condition by the lack of meaning in their lives, and God has drawn them to believe. You as a product of God’s love are important as an example to them.
The person and work of Jesus.
For traditional Chinese, it is not a stretch to accept that there is some kind of higher power. The ancient Chinese called it by the same name as the sky, tian 天. So the goal is not to argue that such a power exists, for even Satan knows that it exists, but to show who the true God is, for “no one has seen God at any time, but the only God, who is at the Father’s side, Jesus, has made him known.” John 1:18 ESV. This section will focus on what the Bible says about Jesus to point Chinese people to the true God.
For those who worship the Chinese gods, it is not a far reach to consider that a man could be a god, for many of the gods are ancient heroes who have become deified, and others are ancestors who are being worshipped by more than one family. I have heard that some of the god statues on home mantels include statues of Jesus, as well as of Chiang Kai Shek.
The New Testament reveals the contrary proposition that Jesus is God becoming man, not a man becoming God. The Chinese gods do not include a god of love, but Jesus performed acts of healing and compassion as God come to earth in person to demonstrate to all that God is love. After Jesus took our place and suffered the punishment we deserved by dying on the cross, he was then “shown to be the son of God by rising from the dead (Romans 1:4). Jesus said that he would ask the father to send the Holy Spirit, who would take his place in us as our comforter. Jesus is then the one who revealed that God is three-in-one.
For followers of Confucianism and Daoism, a good starting point is John 1:1. “in the beginning was the word.” That is because the Chinese translators chose the word dao 道 to translate the Greek word logos. That word is full of spiritual meaning for both Confucianists and Daoists, just like it was full of meaning for Greek speakers There have been multiple ways to define it, including the unseen power of the universe, and the rules to keep the universe going, and the energy that makes those rules work. So to label Jesus with the word dao indicates he is a super-power, and so the words of John 1:14 that that super-power became a human being is mind-boggling.
Buddhists properly speaking are atheists, although in practice some Chinese followers reverence the various Buddha statues in a way similar to the way Chinese gods are worshipped. So with them, as well as with modern-day atheists who would have a Darwinian concept of nature, you may need to be ready to talk about reasons for the existence of God. (Endnote 5). Because Buddhists are attuned to personal development of compassionate behavior, you can look for opportunities to talk about the compassionate activities of Jesus, (as in Matthew 20:34), and then that Jesus’ acts show the compassionate nature of God. God sending Jesus to die for our sins can be presented as the ultimate act of compassion. John 3:16 proclaims this directly.
Explaining Christ’s sacrificial death for our sin is best done, as in English, as the ultimate fulfillment of the animal sacrifices performed in the Old Testament. The original languages help us grasp the full meaning of Christ’s death. In Leviticus 16:15, Aaron is told to sprinkle the blood of the sacrificial animal against the cover and in front of it. So he shall make covering for the Most Holy Place because of the impurities and rebellious acts of the Israelites in regard to all their sins.”
The Hebrew consonants for the two words in bold print above are the same. The “covenant box cover” has the same consonants as the result that happened when the blood was sprinkled on it: sins were forgiven. These consonants are KPR, and you are familiar with them in the name for the Jewish day of atonement: yom kippur. The New Testament continues the association by using the same Greek word (hilasterion) for both meanings: Hebrews 9:5 uses it for the cover, and Romans 3:25 for the resulting forgiveness, in the phrase: “whom God put forth as a ___ by his blood.” The Chinese term chosen here, 挽回祭, means “the sacrifice that brings back.” This term is actually more complete than the words we use in English [endnote] because it includes the aspect of sacrifice. You only need to supplement the term by explaining that the “bringing back” includes the forgiveness of sins through the shedding of blood, as in the Old Testament.The connection between the covenant box and the forgiveness of sins is clear in Hebrew and Greek, but is not visible in English and Chinese. It would need to be explained.
The fact that God’s redemption is available to all is good news for those in religions where only a select few reach the point through meditation where they achieve their goal. A God of love would not put himself out of reach to all but a select few.
Repentance and faith.
Peter said in Acts 2:38 “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins.” The Chinese word for repent, hui gai 悔改, in itself could only mean regret, and so you can’t take it for granted that your conversation partner will make the connection that biblical repentance is a change of mind pledged to God, and includes beseeching God directly for forgiveness of sins.
The word for faith, xin yang (信仰) as in English, has to be explained not only as “faith that…”, which is being acceptive of a premise, but also “faith in,” a reliance on someone, who is Christ himself, as Francis Pieper clearly states, Christian faith is trust in Jesus as the God/man who dealt with our sins on the cross. [endnote 5.5].. This is more clear in the English translation than in the Chinese, so requires explication. For example, in John 14:1 Jesus says “You believe in me,” with the English word “in” translating the Greek word eis. The Chinese translation is simply “believe me.” 信我.” In John 14:10, the English says “don’t you believe that I am in the Father,” with the “that” corresponding to the Greek hoti. The Chinese rephrases the sentence, without a “that.” Fortunately there are synonyms in the Chinese Bible that can help to explain the concept of faith as “faith in” someone. They include rely (yilai 依赖and yikao 依靠), trust (xinren 信任).
The students who came to faith on Taiwan would tell me that their parents were tolerant of them accepting the concepts of a new religion, but they would often forbid them to receive baptism and to attend church on Sunday. I know a young adult whose first action upon arrival in America for graduate school was to find a pastor and ask for baptism. The reluctance of the parents can be explained by the public nature of baptism. Especially in smaller communities, when there is a catastrophe like a fire or a car accident, the neighbors would blame the family that allowed a Christian to be in their midst, thus inviting the anger of the local god. That’s why I was so grateful for the Lutheran teaching, as expressed by Francis Pieper, that all the means of grace bring the same thing, so I could proceed to Christian growth for those believers who were not yet baptized. (Endnote 6).
Benefits of being a Christian.
Many of the benefits are solutions to the symptoms of sin. Forgiveness corresponds to guilt, and acceptance corresponds to shame. Peace is translated ping an 平安in Colossians 7, and the “peace with God” in Romans 5:1 is xiang he 相和.
Power for doing good.
Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Marxism have extensive rules for social behavior, but the power to obey the rules must be provided by the person himself; You can bring the good news that Jesus can enable someone to actually practice the high ideals of Confucian ethics by providing a “new life” that does the right thing by its very nature. “God is at work in you to will and to do according to His good pleasure” 2 Timothy 2:13 [end note]. The ideal of “man to become truly a man” (jen仁) is achieved in Romans 8:29 “God has decided to conform his people to the image of his son.”
Two widespread Buddhist statues can be a basis for conversation. The laughing Buddha (Maitreya 弥勒佛) brings the subject of joy, blessing, and fulfillment; these are given by Jesus. The Goddess of Mercy (观音) is looked to as compassionate. Jesus empowers us to put the Buddhist ideal of compassion into action by helping those in need around the world. Traditional worship asks for good fortune, but does not ask or pledge to become a better person; Jesus fulfils Ezekiel’s promise to give a new heart. Traditional worshippers turn to the goddess of the sea (Matsu (妈祖) for meeting the needs of life; Jesus promises “whatever you ask of the Father in my name, I will give to you.” John 16:23. The word “in” in the phrase “in my name” (因) includes the idea of “because of.”
Meaning and joy in life.
Confucianism and Daoism find meaning in seeking to be in harmony with the universe. Christianity promises that they will be one with the creator of the universe. Buddhists find meaning in the breakthrough to enlightenment (the realization that all is illusion). God created a material world, and said “it is good.” Marxists find meaning in being part of a larger movement that is historically inevitable and therefore gives meaning to their self-sacrifice; in Christianity they are part of a world-wide movement of love and caring that can exist under any form of government. Traditional worshippers hope that their progeny will burn offerings to them so their needs will be met in the spirit world; Jesus promises “today you will be with me in Paradise.”
Power against demons.
While my students on Taiwan could appreciate that Jesus brings forgiveness, some told me that the most meaningful blessing for them was that Jesus was more powerful than “the ghosts” (鬼). In traditional Chinese religion, people who pass away but have no one left on earth to give sacrifices to them become “angry ghosts.” They are determined to harm you if you let your guard down. Students told me that when they awoke at night and could not sleep for fear of the ghosts, they would pray to Jesus for protection and receive release. On this topic, new Christians need to be assured that the evil spirits mentioned in the Bible (邪灵) are NOT deceased people, but are spirits who rebelled against God Satan.
Eternal life.
Being with God forever is a concept that would be new to each school of Chinese thought. Certain Daoists devoted themselves to lengthening their lives, some using alchemy for this purpose, but there was no expectation of an eternal existence. Confucius encouraged people to perform the rites to the ancestors, but it that was for good fortune and a harmonious society now, in this life.
Traditional Chinese religion believers already believe in life after death, for they become an ancestor, and ancestors are seen as present and active to those still on earth. Ancestors however pass from memory after the 3rd generation, so the idea of an eternal existence is new and goes beyond what their religion promises.
For Buddhists, the self ends at death, but its components re-arrange into a new self. This process continues until the components of your self finally extinguish, and you enter nirvana (), meaning the peace that comes from non-existence and the end of your own self. The benefits promised by Christianity to Buddhists is that you only have to live only once, you do not need to be reincarnated, and so you will enter eternal life as your own self, not as a different self. The words of Job 19:26-7 are relevant for them: “in my flesh I will see God; I myself will see him with my own eyes—I, and not another.”
The person you are talking to though may be influenced by a different school of Buddhism. As Buddhism filtered into China in the centuries before Christ, （it was the Mahayana branch 上乘 that was predominant in China）, Chinese adapted and changed it to suit Chinese views. In particular, the non-existence of self and the notion that Nirvana as absence of activity were ameliorated [endnote 6.5]. Some branches of Buddhism were created in China, and each has features that can lead to a conversation about Christ. Here are four of them. 1) The Pure Land school (净土宗)was founded around 400 AD in Jiangxi Province. A conversation connection is that one gets into the pure land by calling upon the name Amitabha (omitofu 阿弥陀佛), reminds of scripture’s “he who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.” (Acts2:21) The Chinese Bible’s word for “call” here is very well chosen. Not a shouting out (叫 but a beseeching (求告). But the fact that the pure land is not eternal is a conversation connection. 2) Zen Buddhism (chan 禅宗) is traced to Tao Sheng who lived in fifth century China. He stressed that enlightenment is reached not by virtue and discipline but by an immediate realization. This can be connected to the immediate reception of salvation, without works, upon coming to faith in Jesus, as in 1 John 5:23 “he who has the Son has the life.” 3) The Tian Tai school (天台宗) was founded in China in the sixth century, but venerates an earlier document from India called the Lotus Sutra as the highest stage of the many schools within Buddhism. It teaches that Buddha is a supernatural preacher in a paradise. [endnote 6.7]. You can compare this to Jesus as the Son of Man represented in Daniel 7:1-14, whose kingdom is everlasting. The Chinese Bible does make clear that this figure is Jesus, by using the same translation for ‘son of man’ (人子) in both Daniel and the Gospels. 4) The Zhen yan sect (真言) appeared in China in the eighth century as an adaptation of a Buddhist school from India, and was then brought to Japan where it is called Shingon. It embraces esoteric practices like mantras, hand gestures, and diagrams, with an initiation by an ordained master, with the goal of the realizing that one’s true nature is identical with the universal Buddha. Linking with the Chinese respect for the dead, it provides funeral services to rescue the departed soul from dangers. Christian conversation can begin with the proclamation that in Jesus God has saved us from the power of darkness and moved us to Jesus’ kingdom, redeeming and forgiving us (Colossians 1:13-14), and making peace by his blood on the cross (verse 20). The Chinese translation uses the strong word “accomplish” (成就) to explain that making of peace.
Word usage in Church Life
The English word “church” has many uses, and fortunately the Chinese language is much less confusing than English because it has different names for some of these usages. For example, the building is a teaching-structure jiao tang, a denomination is a religion-gathering zong hui宗会 , and the event on Sunday morning is a gathering-meeting ju hui 聚会. When the Chinese Bible translates the Greek word ekklesia, it uses the term jiao hui 教会. This needs to be explained carefully, because the word jiao means teaching. It is consonant with the value that Chinese place on education that this word would be used, and it is true that especially in Confucianism and Buddhism, meetings consist largely of lectures. But this is not the meaning of ekklesia. That word is used already in the Septuagint for the public gathering of God’s people. The most common use in the New Testament is for the people of God in a location, not limited to their weekly meeting. And of course the same word is used three times for the universal body of Christ. So the Bible verses that contain the word jiao hui require exposition. This is not to diminish that the church is the locus for Christian education. [footnote 7]
My friends tell me that attention must be paid to avoiding legalism in Chinese Church contexts, for Chinese culture has stressed examinations and rules for millenia, so it is natural to look at Christian teachings in terms of rules. There is one word in the Chinese Bible that I think can exacerbate a trend toward legalism. It is the word yao 要. This word is used properly with the sense of “ought to” in places like Leviticus 18:4: “you yao obey my laws”. However, sometimes it is used in passages that are not commands, but by using it, makes the passage sound like a command. My favorite example is Philippians 4:4, where the Chinese Bible says: “you yao always rejoice.” Even though the the Greek is in imperative mode, I think it ought to be heard as an invitation, similar to the “come unto me all ye that labor” in Matthew 11:28. That is also in imperative mode, but the Chinese translation is like an invitation: you can come to me 可以到我这里. When I teach about such passages I make use of the word “encourage” (gu li 鼓励).
The Sacrament of Holy Communion (holy meal圣餐) gained deeper meaning for me when I lived in Chinese culture, where the method used to indicate allegiance to the god of the neighborhood was to have a meal together “in the name of” that god. I believe that Chinese people, also with their ideal of meal-fellowship, probably have a deeper appreciation of the communion meal than I do.
Public prayer ends “in Jesus name” and the Chinese word used here, feng 奉, is more expressive than the English “in.” because it includes the concept of calling upon the authority of the power referenced.
Fellowship 彼此交接is one of the four descriptions in Acts 2:24 of what the new believers did when they were together, and the Chinese believers are examples to the global church of what this means in practice. The Chinese people bring into the church their culture’s sense of hospitality and community, of the enjoyment of togetherness.
Conclusion
The Chinese Bible has many words and phrases that are wonderfully expressive of the original meaning of scripture, and a few words that require us to exercise teaching. There are word-uses in the Chinese Bible that do allow us to connect with each of the different life-views of the Chinese people.
End Notes
One. The Chinese words using English letters in this article use the pinyin system, invented in mainland China in 1958. A guide to pronunciation is at foundbytes.com/readchinese. The Chinese characters in this article are simplified characters, also created in China during the 1950’s. Many simplified characters are identical to the traditional characters, but others are altered to use less brush strokes.
Two. I have created a word list for Chinese people who are encountering the English Bible, at foundbytes.com/bible-terms
2.5. James Legge, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume II, (Oxford 1885) page 478, quoted in Sampson C. Shen, Confucius and Tagore, A Comparative Study (no publisher or date listed; preface dated as August 1, 1960, Taipei, Taiwan), page 370. The term di was then used for the emperor, reigning at heaven’s discretion.
Three. The evangelistic conversations in Acts start at Acts 2:22, 5:30, 3:13, 10:44, 13:28. The speech in Athens (Acts 17:31) mentions only the resurrection.
Four. These four components are discussed in detail at foundbytes.com/message-content
4.1. Sampson Shen quotes early Chinese writings to make the point that parents have the role of the sanctioning force for good behavior that is held by God in other cultures. Sampson C. Shen, Confucius and Tagore, A Comparative Study (no publisher or date listed; preface dated as August 1, 1960, Taipei, Taiwan), pages 335-339.
4.2. Shen, page 340.
Five. Some of the many different reasons that people believe there is a god are at foundbytes.com/god-existence.
5.5. Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis, MO:1953), Volume 2 page 426.
Six. Francis Pieper, op. cit., Volume 3 page 108.
Seven. Audio of Luther’s small catechism is at http://8fu.org. A selection of Lutheran materials in Chinese is at Dr. Mike Paul’s website, lutheranchinese.org. English/Chinese lessons on basic doctrines and Bible introduction are at foundbytes.com/Chinese-menu. Christian education essays in Chinese are at https://fromacorntooak12.com/select-chinese-language-style/